The first recorded attempts to enhance performance occurred as early as 800BC, when ancient Greek's olympians ate sheep's testicles as a source of testosterone. The pioneers of road racing used caffeine, cocaine, ether-coated sugar cubes, strychnine and alcohol to numb pain and delay fatigue, and it was only in 1965 that doping was made illegal in France. 

Within the history of cycling, we remember:

• Tom Simpson died on Mount Ventoux during the 1967 Tour of France, an autopsy revealing a cocktail of amphetamines and alcohol in his system.
• In 1988 Pedro Delgado tested positive for the diuretic Probenecid, but retained his overall victory in the TdF as the drug was not on the UCI’s “banned list”.
• Again, in 1988's TdF,  Police seized growth hormone and EPO from Team Festina with their staff confessing to 'systematic doping' of the team. They were excluded from the Tour and six other teams pulled out in protest (including Dutch team TVM who left the tour still being questioned by the police). The scandal overshadowed cyclist Marco Pantani's win.
• In 2002 Raimondas Rumsas’ wife was arrested with EPO, growth hormone and Actovegin in her car (on the very evening he had finished 3rd overall in the TdF).
• On Valentine’s day, 2004, Marco Pantani (winner of the Giro & Tour 1998) died of a cocaine overdose, having spent the latter part of his career embroiled in drugging scandal.
• Olympic cycling champion Tyler Hamilton tested positive for blood doping during the Vuelta in September ’05, forfeited all competitive results from that date, and was banned for two years. The American would, however, keep his ’04 Athens gold after the "B" sample – having tested positive with the "A" sample - was frozen / destroyed.
• The 2005 Vuelta a Espana was won by Roberto Heras, who subsequently tested positive for EPO. 
• The 2006 Giro d’Italia was won by Ivan Basso, later named in the Operacion Puerto doping investigations. He subsequently admitted to some doping during his career.
• Operacion Puerto dawned with Spanish police having arrested five people - including the directeur sportif of the Liberty Seguros team - on the basis of a massive doping scheme involving the team and many other top cyclists. It would seem to indicate that the infamous Dr Eufemiano Fuentes ran a doping superstore implicating 53 cyclists. The Operacion has led to no convictions,  but launched cycling into a form of hysteria.
• Cycling superstar Jan Ullrich (the winner of the 2006 Tour of Switzerland) was suspended - though not prosecuted - and several potential contenders in the 2006 Tour de France were forced to withdraw, having been linked to Operacion Puerto
• In September 2006  former teammates of Lance Armstrong admitted to taking EPO during the 1999 Tour.
• Floyd Landis’ positive test for testosterone during the 2006 Tour of France has sadly rendered one of the Tour’s greatest rides almost irrelevant, and sent a shockwave through the sport of professional cycling.
• In 2007 Dane Bjarne Riis admitted to EPO usage during the '96 TdF, coming clean in an effort to instill a culture of drug free sport in pro-team CSC.

Landis' prosecution - coupled with the fallout of Operacion Puerto - has dumped cycling in a deeply embarrassing situation after it’s “summer of drugs” with backing sponsors pulling their support, and the damage to professional cycling has simply been devastating.

It’s not fair to expect fans to watch a 3-week race just to have the result invalidated, and viewers are deciding it is no longer worth being made a fool of. The excuses around testing positive remains thin (at best), and with teams of lawyers successfully raising (warranted) technical issues - with authorities looking like bungling amateurs - it just damages the sport even more. Cycling needs to re-align itself.

Though first considered to be no more than a 'cheating' problem, doping  has reached such proportions that it concerns society as a whole, but with the stakes in sport growing higher, doping seems to increase exponentially.
 
The needle in sport. It is commonly accepted that doping is rife within the ranks of professional sport - the needle being viewed as an essential part thereof - and techniques have sophistically evolved over time to “beat the test”.  In pursuit of glory the upper echelons of sport have always been spending on medical preparation, with such transactions - at times - even verging on the criminal.

With medical personnel already in abundant attendance around the peloton the boundary between healing and enhancement has become blurred. What is medically justifiable treatment versus performance enhancement has - quite frankly - disappeared.  And yet, if you would tear up “the banned list” and let riders take whatever they like, the sport will be reduced to a contest of the biggest budget of medical preparation. The race will be between doctors creating athletes suffering from nasty side effects, and with genetic modification looming, endurance sports will become a mockery.  

  
 
What about the rules? - The rules are exactly where a large part of the problem arises. The rules can never be on par with technology and it will always leave scope for an athlete to use and abuse his 'first aid kit'. What might be 'allowed' today, might not be allowed tomorrow?

No matter how carefully the rules are drafted they will always be interpreted, argued, exempted, bended, or even just not enforced. Rules are actually the last resort; when a dispute arises 'the rules' can give us a framework of reference by having a wealth of considered precedents available. Rules are only practical once they have been considered, accepted, properly enforced, and reasonably applied to the facts of each situation - giving due regard to doubt and the right of being presumed innocent - over time.

Neither a trial by media, nor draconian enforcement of rules is the answer, but sensible application having due regard to procedure and administrative fairness, whilst being guided by definitive underlying principles would be a fair management of any situation arising. Ultimately it all boils down - back - to a question of ethics, honesty and sportsmanship (not gamesmanship).
 
Ethics - In pursuing victory with honour, sport has always served as a vehicle for education, health, leadership and fair play. The basic principles underlying sporting contest has always been:

• fairness in operating within the spirit of the rules, not taking an unfair advantage and making ethical decisions when having to do so,
• respect in recognising the contribution all competitors make to sport, treating all with dignity and consideration,
• taking responsibility for one’s actions as a role model,
• safety in advocating healthy and safe procedures, preventing dangerous behaviour, and demonstrating a concern for others,

Doping blatantly disregards these principles; it circumvents them in search of empty glory, and does nothing for the promotion of sport, sportsmanship, fair play or anything else. It boosts performance over fatigued competition, stealing reward from the real winner. It is in stark contrast to any sports program's code of conduct, all of which centres around integrity, ethics and sportsmanship.

A sporting superstar created by EPO, blooddoping, HGH, anabolic steroids, amphetamines, ephedrine, cocaine, ecstasy and salbutamol might very well be invincible by a mortal bread-and-water competitor, but he's actually just a guinea pig. 

The fact is that doping is an enhancement of natural ability - if you would give an untalented rider all the doping benefits possible, he still would not be able to compete professionally - but with the summer of drugs the time has come for the peloton to clean its act up, or for it to be abandoned. It is just not fair to ask of bicycling fans to believe in the feats achieved, if in fact they are superhuman.
 
Where does the answer lie? Suffice to say that there is no real answer, but we can apply common sense, be transparent, and ask for other's opinions in respect of training.

Know this (tongue in cheek): 

• If you need to be injected at night - curtains drawn - you're going to start doping (and cheating). 
•  If there's no tax invoice issued in respect of the wad of cash paid for the goo, you might want to check that with WADA.
• If coach is trying to buy urine from a homeless guy, you just might be cheating allready.
• If you run, cycle, jump or sprint faster, quicker or higher than anybody else, you’re going to have to submit a sample, and it’s just so much easier to be clean!

Doping is a complex issue wherein one must consider the pressures athletes find themselves under. Professionals need to perform optimally for as long as possible without cracking, but are  faced with superhuman rivals.

Victory should never have come “at any cost”, and dopers (and their masters) owe it to clean riders, sponsors, organizers, event volunteers and fans not to be unfaithful to the ethics of sport, dragging cycling’s rich history into the gutter (again and again) in the pursuit of empty glory.

How is it done?

EPO - Aerobic potential can be increased by increasing the blood's oxygen transfer capacity. This is very important in sports that require either 'staying power' (relying on the body's energy metabolism), or intense effort from varying sources of energy. After long-lasting or intense effort, glycogen reserves must be restored, and a specially adapted nutritional strategy / drugs are needed to modify the metabolic process.

Boosting an athlete’s red blood cell count (and thus the efficiency with which oxygen is transported around the body) in order to improve performance, is done by injecting erythropoietin – a hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates production of red blood cells - and it gives a massive advantage in performance.

The greater the amount of red blood cells available, the more oxygen can be carried from the lungs to the muscles.  EPO is typically taken prior to a big training block - out of competition - to ensure that by the time of the competition all traces of the synthetic EPO will have disappeared. It enables the doper to train harder and longer than he would be able to “naturally”. Cheaters can also “micro dope” by staying under the fail limit, as an aid to performance on the event.

The obvious danger with EPO is that the body’s capacity to produce red blood cells naturally is compromised, with the athlete ultimately having to rely on injections of the hormone ( for the rest of his life).
 
Blood doping. An athlete can have healthy blood 'removed' during periods when the body is at its freshest (e.g after a period of rest), which blood is stored and transfused 'back' into the rider when needed.

The benefit of a transfusion of half a litre of blood can provide the athlete with an additional half litre of oxygen to muscles per minute, at the same time increasing the capacity of the muscles to use oxygen by up to five percent. Autologous blood transfusion (transfusion of your own blood) is not detectable and is perhaps not technically “doping”, but remains a banned technique affording a massive boost to an athlete over fatigued competition.

Poorly stored blood leads to serious illness and blood clots, and by pushing “thick blood” with high red cell count through the body, massive strain is put on the heart.
 
Anabolic Steroids. There are various steroids that enhance muscle development and the kidney’s ability to produce natural EPO. Testostorone – being one of them – both accelerates the body’s EPO production ability, and aids in muscle recovery.

Natural or man-made compounds that act like testosterone - such as Nandrolone, Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), Stanozolol, Androstenedione, or DHEA - can increase muscle size, strength and power. It also increases aggression and competitiveness, and allows one to train harder, for longer.

In males the known side effects are kidney damage, development of breasts, premature baldness, shrinking and hardening of testicles, sterility and impotence, acne, increased aggression and sexual appetite. In females the side effects to subjects have been the development of male features (such as facial hair & a deepening of the voice), cause increased aggression, mood swings, depression, irregular periods and increase the risk of jaundice and liver damage.

Steroids stay in body for up to six months and are easily detectable in urine.
 
Human Growth Hormone. When the aim is to increase strength and muscular power (to  improve technique) protein, natural or synthetic anabolic agents in combination with hyper-protein diets and muscle-building exercises are frequently used. The balance between the increase in muscle mass and the loss of fat mass can be maintained by growth hormones associated with aminoacids, drugs with anabolic properties, or with nutritional supplements.

Growth hormones stimulate cell growth, aids in muscle mass building and their recovery. Typically it is injected prior to a period of training (to aid muscle development during training), but can be used during competition to speed up recovery from fatigue. 

Abuse of HGH leads to thickening of the bones (particularly the jaw bone), swelling of hands and feet and increased organ growth.

HGH is currently not tested for.  
 
Stimulants: Substances like Amphetamines, Ephedrine, Cocaine, Ecstasy & Salbutamol  act on the brain to stimulate the body mentally and physically, allows athletes  to compete at higher levels - for longer - by reducing feelings of tiredness, and can aid weight loss.

These substances increase blood pressure, aggression, anxiety, addiction, loss of appetite, increase (and cause) irregular heart beat, chest pains, headaches and palpitations, and have a high rate of traceability if tested soon after ingestion.
 
Narcotic Analgesics: Morphine, Methadone, Heroin and Pethidine are the strongest known painkillers. Their use increases the pain threshold enabling an athlete to compete and train longer / harder, and reduces or eliminates pain to compete despite injury or illness.

These substances are highly addictive, cause loss of concentration, balance and co-ordination, drowsiness, nausea and vomiting, constipation, fainting and comas, and are easily detectable if tested within three months of having been taken.
 
Diuretics are products that help eliminate fluid from the body (such as Acetazolamide, Chlorthalidone and Triamterene). They are used to lose weight quickly (water) and to disguise the presence of other banned substances by increasing the rate at which urine is produced and expelled.

Side effects are constituted by dehydration, dizziness, cramps, headaches, nausea, kidney damage, and is easily detectable.
 
Pharmacological , chemical and physical manipulation:  By the use of either substances or particular methods it is possible to hide the presence of banned substances in, or even to  alter a urine sample. Most obvious techniques used is to use someone else's urine for your sample, or by using Epitestosterone, Bromantan, diluted urine, Hemodilution, by reducing kidney tubular secretions or by manipulating the body’s Testosterone/Epitestosterone ratio, simply to beat the test.

Testing.

Despite popular belief the tests are very reliable if properly conducted, and in everyday use in hospitals around the world.  All tests have a ceiling of tolerance built in before a result is declared “positive”, and a negative test does not necessarily mean a ' clean' rider as there is plenty of “scope to dope” without testing over the fail limit. 

The famous “A” and “B” samples are not taken at different times; they are merely two halves of the same sample and it is highly unlikely that the “B” sample will have a different result (unless there has been a serious testing procedure failure).

The reason why a rider might test negative on day 1, 2 & 4 – yet positive on day 3 - is often because the traces of substances found was simply not enough to meet the threshold of a “positive” test on day 1,2 & 4, but sometimes a cheat will get his micro doping sums wrong, or undergo a blood transfusion containing traces of banned substances, that tip the test over the fail limit.

However, beating the test has become a science in itself, and would seem not to be too difficult to do!
At the same time there are administrative errors, procedural blunders, hidden agendas, the legitimate use of medication, doping oversensitivity, a simple mistake, and any of a number of things that can go wrong during testing. All of these factors combine to create doubt, a lack of trust, and frustration for enforcers and athletes.

Whereto from here?

The problem with doping is that it has been allowed to fester for too long. Whatever has been done - to date - seems to be not enough, and doping is out of control.

The upside of the disastrous “summer of drugs” would seem to be both the media's insistence, and a subtle change in riders’ perception of having accepted ‘the needle’ as a  part of the sport. Doping riders are taking hard looks at themselves as team managers are being forced to “keep the team clean” under pressure from sponsors and event organizers and the public. Cycling fans passionately advocate zero tolerance policies. Athletes have been calling for blood testing to help catch cheats. Backing sponsors and event organizers demand results within a drug free contest. Policing and voracious testing of riders has been embarked on, but the only real difference can be achieved by a paradigm shift of the riders’ attitude towards doping.

Simply put, please support drug free sport in whichever way you can. In the words of cycling's foremost commentator - Phil Liggett - cheats ought not to be allowed to prosper!